= Bremen =
The history of the Free Hanseatic City of Bremen is marked by the Hanse, trade and seafaring as well as the pursuit of independence.
[c] Name [c]
During the 9th century the settlement was called Bremen in German, in Latin it was Brema. 937 and later the name Bremun was used in documents which is the plural of the locativ brem. Brem means at the edge; It remains unclear if the edge of the river, the dune or the district was meant.
Adam von Bremen still wrote in the 11th century of Bremon, after that the name can also be identified as breman or bremin. In a charter of 1013 the name bremonesis is used including the German and Latin form of the name. Soon out of the endings an, on, un, ae, ia or only a and e the ending en is preferred and becomes the  Middle High German Bremen.
[c] Origins [c]
The oldest part of Bremen lies on a dune chain of about 23 kilometers lengths running from northwest to southeast, which reaches from Bremen castle to Ahndorf and as far as the Achimer Geest (moraine). At the Bremen Domshof (dome yard) it reaches a hight of 13.2 m a.s.l. The Osterholzer Geest in the north og the Lesum has partially steep flanks toward the Lesum and the Weser. In the parts in north Bremen it is also called the Rekumer Geest, Vegesacker Geest and Bremian Switzerland. Other glacial moraines are only elevated slightly over the marshes of the river lowland. There is the Huchtinger Geest with it's maximum hight at 5.5 m a.s.l on Hohen Horst, a sandy pebbly knoll in Habenhausen at 4.7 m a.s.l. and the Hexenberg (Witchmountain) at Borgfeld. In between these higher ground is the so called Bremian valley at an average hight of 3.3 m a.s.l (currently the average level of the Weser at Middle Bremen). In the valley there are the marshes of the Bremian Wesermarsh and the Weser-Aller-Meadow, the Bockland, the Borgfelder Wümme lowland and in the are of Osterholz, Oberneuland (Uppernewland) and Borgfeld a Weser sand-terrace.
The sand of the Bremian dune lies on top of river sediments. Pollen findings of 10'000 to 11'000 years in age at the layer boundary, meaning on the lower side of the sand dune, indicate that the dune is younger than 10'000 years.
There are clues that as early as the last Pleistocene, before and partially during the last ice age, people as hunter-gatherer in the Old Stone Age reached the area of today Bremen. The sedentary lifestyle of Neolithic farmers spread to the northern parts of Germany far later than in the loess areas farther south. Instead there were still Mesolithic hunter-gatherers with highly developed tools.
Due to the different water levels of the Weser and its tributaries in the previous millenia, only settlements on the moraines dating to the Stone Age could be documented. Digger excavation in the middle Bremen and Blumethal in the Weser provided stone tools dating to the middle Old Stone Age. Findings in the Bremian dune have shown middle Stone Age factory sites, wedge axes or a tranchet axe. Some discoveries from the New Stone Age, the Neolithic and the Bronze Age prove first settlements dating to that time on the higher ground of the area of Bremen.
Around 650 BC the Iron Age spread into the northern German area between Weser, Elb and Hostein. There are discoveries from the Jastorf culture around 600 BC until the year 0. The relation of economy and culture changes to a large degree. Around 250 BC Saxons advance to this area and mix with the already present Chauci.
Around year 0 the Germanic tribe of the Chauci settled the area. Since the 3rd century BC the name of Saxons is verified. If the Chauci partially joined the Saxons and Frisians or if Chauci and Saxon even are different names of the same tribe is to date unclear. Between the first and the eight centurey the first settlements established at the Weser and its various lower courses. All were located on the 20 km long Bremian dune, which provided protection against flooding and easy access to the ford over river.
Already in 150 AD the Alexandrian geographer Claudius Ptolemaeus mentioned a settlement with the name Phabiranon, which is Fabiranum in Latin. This is supposed to be the first mentioning of Bremen. His writing Germanias Megalis Thesis (Map of greater Germany) includes a short descriptions and many geographical coordinates. He does not describe Phabiranon to be located at the Weser (Uisurgio), that he writes flows into the sea south to the mouth of the Elbe, which is not entirely wrong. Instead he places the settlement in a north eastern direction of the mouth of the Elbe without giving a more detailed description.
The dune ridge at the right Weser bank in the area of the Bremen Cathedral was about 3 to 4 meter higher than the bank of the river channel Balge of the Weser. Therefore the settlement on the ridge was save from the frequent flooding in the are of the Balge. Discoveries in the Balge, the market place and the cathedral ridge were made dating to the time of the barbarian invasion. Once a ferry location at the unsettled Tiefer developed the settlement on the ridge became a village during karolingian time, that lived of the ferry and transit traffic as a resting place, but in the beginning mainly livestock farming.
[c] Middle ages [c]
During the medieval Christianisation of northern Europe driven by Charlemagne, the missionary Willehad was sent into the Weser region around 780. In his biography for the year 782 he mentions the place of Bremen for the first time in the context of the slaying of a cleric named Gerwal. This is mentioned in the Vita Willehadi in 838 in the sentence: "Siquidem Folcardum presbyterum cum Emmiggo comite in pago denominato Leri, Beniamin autem in Ubhriustri, Atrebanum vero clericum in Thiatmaresgaho, Gerwalum quoque cum sociis suis in Brema, odio nominis christiani, gladio peremerunt." Later dis became the modified remark "... we were ejected from Bremen and two priests were slain..."
In 787 the insurrection was subdued and Willehad was named first bishop of the diocese of Bremen. The deed of foundation of the diocese dating to 788 AD containing the second mentioning of Bremen, later was discovered to be fake.
At the time Bremen was still a small village but well located for traffic: Near the upper level of the tide it was easy to reach the location by ship from the sea. Coming from the south there was the water route through the upper and middle Weser and from the the south east a route over land on the dune ridge between the lowland of Wümme and Weser. In the west and south west the Syker moraine reached into the Weser lowland, so that only few marshes had to be crossed to reach the main river of the Weser. When and how the ferry between Riefer and the left Weser bank began operation is not documented.
The first Bremen cathedral was erected on the highest point of the ridge using wood, probably around 789. It was dedicated in the name apposite Petrus, whose attribute, the key, became coat of arms of Bremen. In 805 the diocese of Bremen was subordinated the archbishopric of Cologne. Due to the large distance the Bremian bishops largely had free reign. Still within the dome district Willehads successor Willerich to the south of the cathedral ordered the construction of a wooden church in the name of Willehad, who was sanctified in the meantime. Soon later this church burned down.
820 Willerich issued to chop down a sacred grove and use the wood to restore the destroyed church and build another one. This parish church was located outside the dome district at the location of the Liebfrauen church today and it was dedicated to Saint Vitus.
848/849 the archbishop of Hamburg, Ansgar, moved his seat to Bremen, where the bishop seat was vacant, due to raids of the Normans of Hamburg. Thereby the archbishopric of Bremen came into existence. Not only due to this move it is reasoned that the Bremian dome district already had a wall and moat to protect the dome castle in Carolingian times. Beside the cathedral and the dome monastery the dome district consisted of the Palatium of the bishop, the houses of ministers and adscript servants. De jure it survived this way until the German mediatization.
In 850 (other sources indicate 858) the first cathedral was destroyed by Danish vikings. Afterwards Ansgar ordered the construction of a stone cathedral.
915 Bremen was raided by Hungarians who burned down the churches and abducted the inhabitants.
On the side of the dome district there were two other flourishing settlements. There lived chandlers and craftsmen. A bank settlement, the suburbium (lat. for suburb), was located on the hill side of today Langenstrasse. On the other side of the road were hythes, the then small ships could be pulled up the bank. Around the Saint Veits church grew the vicus (lat. village).
In 888 the archbishop Rimbert got from the emperor Arnulf of Kärnten a confirmation for the market rights and in addition the coinage prerogative and customs law. Though the oldest Bremian coins date to the first half of the 11th century. The market was at first a periodical gathering of chandlers. About the exact location of the used market area there are different hypothesis. During the 1950-es it seemed clear that it was near the current Liebfrauen church. In the meantime archaeological knowledge of the early medieval landscape relief was gained: in the lower part of the current market place the dune was very shallow, meaning it was a bad location to build due to flooding, but a good place for market booths. As the bank of the Balge was probably also level the ships could be easily be pulled on land.
Otto I. put the market settlement under his royal protectorate in 937 and transferred his holding in Bremen to the archbishop. He renewed the market rights, coinage prerogative and customs rights on 10th of August 965. The merchants residing in Bremen he affirmed the same protection as those of the royal towns. Three years after that Bremen was allowed to hold two markets per year; the first eight days before Pentecost and another one in the beginning of November. The later developed to the Bremian Freimarkt.
In 994 and 1020 the wall around the dome castle was strengthened due to the increased threat of viking raids. Beginning in 1032 the wall was replaced bit by bit by a stone wall. 
Important impulses emanated from the diocese Bremen under the bishops Ansgar, Adaldag and Adalbert. During the first years of the reign of bishop Adalbrand (also called "Bezelin") (1035 - 1043) the rebuild to a Salic cathedral began. This building is the Romanesque core of the current Bremen cathedral. Even before its completion the chapel, the dome library the monastery and a large part of the town burned down due to arson. The reconstruction started immediately. Great progress was made under archbishop Adalbert (1043 - 1072). Because stone was a commodity the just completed city wall was pulled down to accelerate the rebuild of the cathedral.
Countess Emma of Lesum (around 975-1038) was a charitable squire and the first documented female Bremian. One of the most beautiful folk tale from the 18th century tells about the donation of a meadow in 1032: She wished to donate a meadow to the citizens of the size an man can circle within one hour. Her brother in law and heir, duke Benno of Saxony, increased the time to a full day but selected a man without legs. But the cripple unfolded unexpected strength and circled an area that is larger than the Bürgerweide nowadays.
A blaze destroyed Bremen in 1041. After the reconstruction followed in the years 1043 to 1072 followed a boom under archbishop Adalbert, which is mainly based on the trade with Norway, England and the northern Netherlands as well as hinterland on the Weser in Saxony and parts of Westphalia. Bremen became an mayor trade- and transfer-site and according to Adam of Bremen it became "similar Rome in name and staging area for the people of the north."
But it was not only trade that brought success. The boggy country - the Hollerland east of Bremen - was drained with the help of dutch settlers (treaty of 1106 with privileges for the settlers) and protected by embankments and land reclaimed. Beginning in 1171 also on the left Weser bank - in Huchting, Weyhe, Brinkum and Stediger land - a continuously growing agricultural settlement developed based on the Dutch rights. Soon around 1181 other areas followed, among them Bockland, Arsten, Hasbergen, Horn and Oberneuland.
In 1050 the first monks - Benedictine - came to Bremen supported by archbishop Adalbert and they built the Pauls monastery beyond the city gates.
With the economic success the influence of the citizens in the city increased. In 1139 the civitas is documented in episcopal records. In 1157 a citizen committee to represent their interests is mentioned.
In the so called Gelnhauser privilege of 1186 emperor Friedrich I. Barbarossa chartered the first civil law for the civitas Bremensis. It stated that the church no longer had the right to wield power in the city, this right only remains with the emperor and the senate. Formally Bremen was now a free city. The Gelnhauser privilege also contained the stipulation city are makes free. De facto this freedom still had to be wrested from the archbishops.
1200 the citizenship made an appearance outward when they concluded an accord with the county Altena. In 1206 rules for the "burgenses" (citizens) can be found in the monastery documents, which belonged to the bourgeois committee. In a agreement named concorda with the archbishop Gerhard I. the town and the archbishopric were on equal footing with each other in 1227.
Since 1230 the town council seals all township matters. In the beginning the councilmen were elected by the citizens in the four quarters 'Unser Lieben Frauen', St. Asgarii, St. Marini and St. Stephani. The influence of the of the wealthy upper class continuously increased.
Since 1304 there were 36 councilmen, nine from each quarter. Of those 12 were under oath to officiate for three years. The three third of councilmen - acting councilmen from the upper class, councilmen from the merchants and councilmen from the quarters (Meenheit) form the Wittheit. Since latest 1330 the requirements for election were so, that only a small wealthy upper class consisting of about 30 families ruled the economic basics in the city and also provided the acting councilmen third.
At the top of the ruling council third was a mayor since 1344. From 1398 till 1852/53 (with interruptions) there were four mayors. From 1433 there were several centuries only 24 councilmen and four in line ordered mayors from the four quarters. Sine the 15th century also academically trained lawyers could become councilman.
The first city wall and protective barriers were linked  to a continuous city wall - murus civitatis, which surrounded the whole town center and some parts of the Stephani quarters on the land side. Part of the fortified city on the right side of the Weser belonged an area between the Hutfilter street, Schnoor and city walls. Already in 1244 the first bridge crossed the Weser. From 1307 the rest of the Stephani quarter was included in the city wall. On the land side the city could be entered through the Stephani gate, Dovengate, Ansgariigate, Herdengate, Eastgate and over the Weser through the Bridgegate. Many other gates and doors went out to the Schlachte or the environment. Between the Ansgariitown and the Stephanitown remained the old city wall till 1657 which was connected through a gate - the Natel. These fortification were improved from 1512 to 1514 by deeper trenches, earth walls, dungeon towers and cannon placements.
With 10'000 to 15'000 inhabitants Bremen was lawfully in deed a town with its autonomous administration, fortification and market, where citizens, cleric and other inhabitants without civil rights lived.
In 1220 archbishop Gebhard II. spanned an iron chain over the Weser and demanded tribute from passing ships. The Bremian citizen however protested against this rule so it was soon abandoned again. In 1223 the Hamburg archbishop title was again passed over to Bremen. In 1225 seven consules were appointed as city council. The council had its own seal, signifying its rightful power, even if they had to recognize the power of the local sovereign and archbishop.
In the year 1229 a town hall was mentioned for the first time at the corner Obernstreet/Sögestreet.
Because of a disagreement with a Stedigian peasant the archbishop Gebhard II. confirmed Bremen's sovereign rights and its ordinance privilege in 1233. The town therefore became more and more independent from the city lord and a free city.
The common wealth grew in Bremen. In 1305 the Stephani quarter was included in the city wall.
Legal uncertainty and increasing conflicts between the council and the ruling families with real estate and bond ownership lead to the codification - put in writing - of the Bremian ordinance and privileges between 1303 and 1308 and afterwards it was continuously amended. The town law contained rules for the council, the civil rights and for all areas of civil-, trade-, craft- and criminal-law. Even though some conflicts could not be avoided. 1304 Arnd of Göpelingen, a member of the council, was murdered. Hence developed the council feud of 1304/1305 in which process the decent councilmen and citizen and some influential dynasties were cast out of the city. In 1349 there were riots due to the murdor of a councilmen by a member of the Casalbrothership lead by Conrad of Göpelingen, which ended in the banning of some influential patricians.
The city is divided into four parishes. The reputable families and guild master all had civil rights. They voted the Wittheit of three times twelve men, who were ruling every third year as member of the council. If a member resigned the Wittheit elected a successor. Around 1330 the councilmen that were elected for life became an exclusive group. For years there were no new elections and the number of councilmen was reduced largely. It was agreed on the prerequisites of a candidate for the post of a councilman: "Free and legitimate by birth, of minimum age of 24, ownership of city property with a value of at least 32 mark, the ability to offer a horse to the office of value of 3 mark as well as paying one mark to reduce the towns rent charge."
The Bremen Eke (oak) was an often used river barge in the 14th and 15th century most often on the Weser especially in its upper and middle flow.
The archbishop feud of 1348 till 1350 with twin choice of Gottfried of Arnsberg (who became later archbisop) and Moritz of Oldenburg caused unrest and war. In addition the plague reached Bremen in 1350. It seems that the number of casualties in one year alone was 7000 at an overall number of inhabitants of 15'000. Immediately thereafter followed the Hoyaer feud from 1351 till 1359 with a Bremen defeat and additional costs for prisioner ransom. Bremen was bankrupt. As a consequence of this high property taxes were introduced. At the time the Hanseatic league organized a boycott of Flanders in 1358. The financially weak Bremen, at the time possible for a short time not member of the Hanseatic league, hat to send an envoy to Lübeck. Bernhard of Dettenhusen and Heinrich Doneldey begged meekly for renewal of membership in the Hanseatic league and assured to support the boycott of Flanders and the fight of Hamburg against the pirates on the Elbe.
Of the 15'000 inhabitants only a small part were citizens. A small group af about 30 upper class families controlled the economic base. They provided one third in the council. They stayed councilmen for life. Both other council thirds, the Wittheit and the Meenheit, consisted of well off citizens. The plague, the Hoyaer fued together with its costly ransom for the prisoners increased the social friction.
In the so called banner run some craftsmen (16 - 18) from the council third of the Meenheit protested in September 1365 by carrying the Bremen flag against the unfair distribution of the required high monetary payment. They intruded into the homes of councilmen and the mayor Albert Doneldey and insulted them as "traitor and son of bitches". As a counter measure the leaders of the revolt were condemned to death, their property was confiscated and their wifes and children exiled. Most of the Insurgents however could escape.
In 1365 the archbishop Albert II. of Braunschweig-Lüneburg tried to dominate the city with the help of the escaped craftsmen in the form of a citizen party. In the night of 28th to 29th of May 1366 the fled insurgents together with the Landskenchts (soldier on foot with lances) of the archbishop assaulted the city. The Landsknechts burned down the wooden Roland located on the market place. Some members of the Wittheit and councilmen flew to Delmenhorst. The by the Hanseatic league ostracized leaders controlled the city only for a short period. New rules for the election to the council was introduced so that the part of the Meenheit - simple craftsmen - and the the guilds dominate the council. The new council however could not gain the necessary support of the citizen. On 24th of June the Hanseatic league outlawed the new council as traitor to strengthen the privileges of the free city against the archbishop. The escaped old councilman could reconquer the city with the help of Konrad II. of Oldenbur on 27th od June 1366 and put an end to the social revolt. The 'traitors' were slewn in the fray or hanged, decapitated or broken on the wheel afterwards. The returned council restored the old structure of power fo the upper class and came to terms with the guilds.
The pact of the Meenheit with the bishop caused a more equal representation of the crafts in the council for the price to subordinate the city und there the rule of the bishop, meaning loosing the state as free city. After these crisis Bremen recovered well and followed an active power politic which resulted in territorial gain.
Bremen was four times member of the Hanseatic league. All together the time of membership sum up to 252 years. The single epochs are: 1260-1285, 1358-1427, 1438-1563 and 1576-1669.
The first membership only lasted 25 years. The reason for that was a conflict between the Bremian merchants, who were interested in the since the 11th century predominate north south trade, and the Hanseatic towns in the Baltic sea. The Wendic council of cities had ruled in Wismar a blockade of Norway to strengthen the west-east trade. Bremian merchants defied this resolution. After that Bremen is supposed to be excluded from the Hanseatic league.
Another reason for the challenges with the Hanseatic league was Bremens lackadaisical approach against pirates. Bremen did not want to spoil their relationship to the Fresian Butjadingens in the hope to gain control over the land around the mouth of the Weser.
During a weak period Bremen was forced in 1358 to reapply for membership in the Hanseatic league. Their interests in the Hanseatic league however were most often selfish. If the merchants gained an advantage of the league they exploited it, but on the side they made deals which contradicted the interests of the Hanseatic league. However on league meetings Bremen often demanded a high status - most often futilely.
In 1427 Bremen was excluded from the Hanseatic league when mayor Herbort Duckel in 1425 due to inner frictions of Bremian matters flew out of Bremen and mobilized the league against Bremen. 1438 Bremen was reinstated. They took part in the capture wars against Burgundy - to which the Netherlands belonged - and made peace with Burgundy in 1446. Between 1449 and 1530 in the now highly renown Hanseatic town of Bremen six Tagfahrt (lit. "meeting ride")  took place, two of those (1493 and 1493) as Hansetag with all members. The trade of Bremian merchants with grain, fish, stone and beer was mainly oriented toward the Netherlands, England, Norway, upper Weser, Westphalia but also with cities in the Baltic sea.
Furthermore in Bremen the cog was constructed. From the year 1380 the wrack of a pretty well preserved Hanseatic cog was found in 1962 in the slick of the Weser when extending the port. Nowadays it is exhibited in the German naval museum in Bremerhaven. Especially the Bremian cogs were renown for their maneuverability in tight ports.
The drain of power of the league began with the growing stronger of the territorial powers in the Baltic sea. In 1441 the Hanseatic league had to recognize the economic equality of the Dutch. They lost further influences due to the changing trading possibilities after the discovery of America.
The Bremen 'Bergenfahrergesellschaft' (lit. association sailing to Bergen') grew more important with the reduced Bergenfahrt of the Wendic cities. In the middle of the 16th century Bremen became the dominant power in the Bergen trading office Bryggen.
From 1563 till 1576 Bremen was excluded once again from the league because of a religious controversy between orthodox Lutherian and Protestants.
At the beginning of the 17th century the Hanseatic league was a league only in name. The thirty year war, 1618-1648, brought about the dissolution. On the Hansetag in 1629 and 1641 the towns of Hambourg, Bremen and Lübeck were asked to preserve the best in the the interests of the league.
The channel of the Weser petered out more and more until it was no longer possible to reach Bremen with cogs. The load was therefore transferred to Brakes at Blexer Tief to transport the goods on Ekes between the anchoring ground and the Schlachte. The Balge was closed for naval traffic since 1602.
The Bremen merchant fleet in 1560 comprised 65 ships with a total loaf of over 4000 bales, which is about 8000 metric tons. The number of ships increased till the end of the 16th century to 107.
[https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_der_Stadt_Bremen, 2015-09-15]